defence of human rights

 Answer:

      The purpose of the United Nations is to establish peace and security in the international arena.  Recognition of human rights is essential in the interests of world peace and security because peace cannot be established without recognition of the human rights and freedoms of all peoples of the world.  With this in mind, confidence in fundamental human rights has been established in the charter proposal.

      Confidence has been placed on the dignity and qualities of every human being.  The oath has been taken to establish equal rights for all, men and women, irrespective of caste and creed.

    The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations formed a Human Rights Commission in 1946, chaired by Elinnob Roosevelt, the wife of former the United States President Roosevelt.  After overcoming a difficult two-and-a-half-year debate, the commission finally drafted a universal draft in 1948.  48 ---- 0 This Declaration was adopted at the Paris Conference of the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10 of that year.  This day is being observed as World Human Rights Day as decided by the General Assembly.

     Article 30 of the Declaration adds major rights and fundamental freedoms.   and peace."  The Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be divided into two parts.  The rights included in the first part are largely political.  Articles 2 to 21 of the Declaration mention municipal and political rights.  Notable among the rights included in the first part is the right to life, liberty and personal security;  The right of movement and residence;  The right to end peacefully;  The right to form organizations;  The right to escape from arbitrary arrest and detention;  The right to a fair trial by an impartial court;  The right to privacy of correspondence;  Property rights;  The right to vote and to join the government;  Nationality rights etc.

    The rights mentioned in the second part of the Declaration are of socio-economic and cultural nature.  Articles 22 to 27 of the Declaration mention all these rights.  Notable rights include the right to work and a decent standard of living;  The right to social security and the right to retire; the Right to education;  The right to participate in cultural life;  Equality in government employment; the Right to health etc.

   In addition to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations has adopted several other human rights declarations, such as 1) Declaration of the Rights of the Child 2) Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women 3) Declaration on Territorial 4) Declaration on Social Progress and Development 5) Declaration on the Rights of the Mentally Handicapped.

 UN initiatives to implement the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

         The Commonwealth did not end its responsibility with the Declaration of Human Rights.  The Commonwealth has also taken many initiatives to make this declaration meaningful.  The United Nations has organized human rights discussion circles and international conferences in different parts of the world.  In many cases, the United Nations has held extensive discussions on allegations of human rights abuses and condemned states that have not taken appropriate measures to protect human rights.  The General Assembly appointed a fact-finding committee to gather information on allegations of human rights abuses in South Africa, Israel and Hungary.  The Security Council intervened when human rights violations were found to be contrary to world peace.  The Security Council adopted a resolution in 1966 condemning Rhodesia's human rights record.

      The UN Secretariat has a complaint regarding human rights.  The Secretariat conducts work related to human rights through this department.  Arranges for the preparation and publication of a calendar on the human rights of the nations.  The United Nations has taken steps to provide consultative assistance on human rights.  The Human Rights Commission formed a sub-commission to prevent discriminatory measures and to protect the rights of minorities.

          Moreover, the Commonwealth has tried to protect human rights by convening various conferences, forming commissions and approving proposals on the prevention of conspiracies to abolish the existence of any nation, political asylum, workers' rights, abolition of slavery, protection of the status of women prisoners of war.  All sub-commissions of the Human Rights Commission have surveyed discriminatory practices in the implementation of education, religious rights, and justice.  An agreement on inequality in education was adopted by UNESCO in 1960 by the Sub-Commission.

   In 1956, the Economic and Social Council instructed member states to send reports every three years on the development and progress of human rights in their countries.  In 1966 an international conference was convened to eradicate all forms of apartheid.  Since the beginning of the Commonwealth, there have been allegations of human rights violations in South Africa, Namibia, Rhodesia, etc.  The sub-commission has investigated and investigated these matters.

    An international conference on human rights was held in Vienna in June 1913 at the initiative of the United Nations.  The conference pledged to make a universal declaration on human rights.  Appeals were made to stop racism, illegal arrests, torture and racial discrimination.  However, the conference did not add any new dimensions to the protection of human rights due to the heated debate and differences among the participating countries.

   Evaluation:

     The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights aroused great hope among the oppressed people of the world.  The United Nations has also taken steps to implement the declared rights.  Nevertheless, the protection of human rights has not been as successful as expected.  The reasons for this failure are as follows:

 1) Lack of legal obligation: -

       There is no legal obligation to comply with or enforce human rights.  Therefore, according to Nicholas and other authors, the human rights mentioned in the Declaration have no real value.  There is no system to enforce human rights.  No legal obligations have been placed on member states to enforce human rights.

 2) Cold War: -

      According to many, very few countries in the world have recognized and protected human rights and fundamental freedoms.  Many blame the "cold war" in the international arena for this failure to establish human rights.

 3) Failure of nations: -

       Human rights violations have taken place and are still taking place in different parts of the world.  The human rights of blacks in South Africa have been trampled underfoot, racism has been pursued in Namibia, and the United States, France, and England have long supported racism.  In all these cases the Commonwealth could not take any effective action.  The indiscriminate killing of people of Indian descent began in Sri Lanka.  In this case, too, the nations fail to play a meaningful role.  According to some critics, the main flaw of the Commonwealth is the lack of specific trials and tribunals, which led to the proposal to appoint a High Commissioner to oversee human rights.  However, due to the obstruction of many states, this proposal could not be implemented.

 4) Error of Section 2 (7) of the Charter: -

       Some blame Article 2 (7) of the Charter as one of the reasons for the failure of the United Nations in human rights matters.  According to this section, the nations cannot interfere in the internal affairs of any state.  Naturally accused states may resort to Article 2 (7) of the Charter for human rights violations.  Another flaw is that the UN Charter does not give any person the right or opportunity to apply directly to the UN for the preservation or restoration of his or her infringed rights.

 5) Error in executing the decision: -

       It is not enough to call some conventions or declarations in the name of protection of human rights, it is also necessary to show that those conventions or declarations are implemented.  But here is the weakness of the nations.  In 1956, the Economic and Social Council instructed members to report on the implementation of human rights in their respective countries every three years.  But it turned out that the report did not contain special information.  No action was taken based on that report.  A 1973 proposal called for a working group to investigate the allegations.  But this method did not work.  In many cases, the working group has reported to the sub-commissions but the sub-commissions have not taken any action.  Sometimes sub-commissions report to the Human Rights Commission.  But even then in most cases, no action was taken.

 Conclusion: -

       The nations have indeed failed miserably in protecting human rights;  It is also true that the nations should be more active in this regard.  But it must be remembered that a united nation is a world conscience.  No country in the world will be able to suppress this initiative of the United Nations for a long time as it has the support of the world behind the initiative of establishing human rights.  Oppressed people must be liberated from the clutches of the oppressor.

 Judicial powers

 Answer:

      The Supreme Court of India is at the top of India's integral justice system.  The Indian Supreme Court has to act simultaneously as a federal court, as the Supreme Court of Appeal, as an advisor to the President, as a guardian of the Constitution and as a defender of fundamental rights.  The Supreme Court of India is more powerful than any other Supreme Court in the world.

 1) Role as a Federal Court: - The Supreme Court of India has been entrusted with the responsibility of resolving disputes over the distribution of power between the Center and the States in India.  The Constitution of India recognizes this power as the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.  However, in reality, the Supreme Court is not seen to play a significant role in this regard, as the Center-State dispute is mostly resolved through dialogue.

 Court of Appeals

 2) Role as Court of Appeal: - The judgment of any court in India other than the Military Court Tribunal can be appealed to the Supreme Court against the final order.  The Supreme Court is the highest appellate court in any case relating to civil, criminal, constitutional interpretation.  The appellate area of ​​the U.S. Supreme Court is not so extensive;  This is because the appellate area of ​​the US Supreme Court is limited to constitutional matters only.

 3) Role as Advisor to the President: - Article 143 (1) of the Constitution states that the Supreme Court may advise the President on any complex question of law or information if the President seeks the advice of the Supreme Court.  This power of consultation has advised on various issues like Kerala Education Bill of 1957, Transfer of Berubari in 1959, Rehabilitation Bill of Jammu and Kashmir of 1982 etc.  Currently, the main advisory area of ​​the Supreme Court has become particularly significant.

 Guardian of the Constitution

 4) Role as Guardian of the Constitution: - The Supreme Court plays an important role as guardian and interpreter of the Indian Constitution.  The Supreme Court can judge whether a directive of a law and governance department of the law department is unconstitutional and if it is unconstitutional, it can declare it null and void.  The power of the Supreme Court is known as the power of "departmental review."

   It should be noted, however, that the judicial review power of the Indian Supreme Court is not as extensive as that of the US Supreme Court.  The U.S. Supreme Court, exercising this power by the "due process of law", can judge not only the procedural aspect of the law but also the excellence of the law.  That is, the U.S. Supreme Court decides whether the law is contrary to normal justice or reasonable.  The Indian Supreme Court, on the other hand, is only entitled to conduct proceedings by the "law-specific procedure".  The Supreme Court of India only decides whether a law has violated certain limits of the Constitution.  The Indian Supreme Court does not have the power to judge whether that law is just or reasonable.

    In addition to the above limitations, the Supreme Court of India has to complete this judicial review within a few other limitations.  As the Indian Constitution is subject to change, Parliament can easily amend the Constitution and invalidate the judgment of the Supreme Court.  Parliament, for example, nullified the judgment of the Golkanath case given by the Supreme Court in 1967 through the 24th Amendment to the Constitution.  During the rule of Rajiv Gandhi, the Supreme Court's verdict in the historic Shahbanu case was overturned bypassing Muslim Sharia law.  Article 5 of the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, which was passed by Parliament in 1976, states that a court cannot judge the legitimacy of a law enacted by Parliament to implement a directive policy.  However, the Supreme Court overturned the clause in the 1980 Minerva Mills case.

  For these reasons, the Supreme Court of India has not been able to exercise the power and dignity of the US Supreme Court as the interpreter and protector of the Constitution.  So it is not as weak as the British judiciary.  Parliament cannot repeal any law establishing the sovereignty of the British Parliament.  The position of the Indian Supreme Court is between the United States and Britain.

 Defender of fundamental rights

 5) Role as a defender of fundamental rights: - Protecting civil rights in the federal system is a special responsibility of the federal court.  The Constitution of India has vested this power and responsibility in the hands of the Supreme Court.  Article 32 of the Constitution states that the Supreme Court can issue 5 types of articles to enforce fundamental rights, namely: 1) habeas corpus 2) decree 3) prohibition 4) questioning of rights and 5) extortion.

   Article 13 of the Constitution states that any law enacted in violation of fundamental rights will be repealed.  This right means that the Supreme Court has at various times repealed various anti-fundamental rights laws and has thus played an important role in upholding fundamental rights.  For example, the Supreme Court repealed Sections 5 and 55 of the Banking Nationalization Act of 1969, the President's Order on the State Allowance Bill of 1970, and the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution Act of 1976.

  In this context, it should be kept in mind that the Supreme Court's view on anti-fundamental rights laws has not been uniform.  For example, in the Shankarprasad case in 1952, in the Sajjan Singh case in 1965, the Supreme Court ruled that fundamental rights could be amended.  Parliament has no right to revoke fundamental rights as the Supreme Court changed its mind in the 1967 Golkanath case.  In 1973, the Supreme Court ruled that the fundamental rights in the Keshbananda Bharati case deserved to be amended.  Contradictory rulings have left many sceptical of the Supreme Court's role in protecting fundamental rights.

 The new role of the Supreme Court

 6) Recent role of the Supreme Court: - Recently, a new role has been seen in the Supreme Court.  Earlier, filing cases in the Supreme Court and other courts was complicated and costly.  As a result, the common man must have been deprived of justice.  But in December 1981, S.  Hon'ble Justice of the Supreme Court in the case of P. Gupta.  N.  Bhagwati gave a landmark verdict.  And since then, the role of the judiciary has changed dramatically.  The verdict, in that case, relaxed the legal complexities of the public interest litigation and provided for cost reduction.  Such lawsuits are called public interest litigation or public interest litigation.

  The Supreme Court has overturned the directives of many undemocratic law and order departments in this birth interest case.  Solved a variety of social problems and benefited many ordinary and deprived people.  For example, in July 1983, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of the death penalty for those convicted of homicide.  In addition, the Supreme Court in 1986 stood up for the starving people in the Kalahandi region of Orissa with the noble cause of social welfare.

  However, in the name of this public interest litigation, the Supreme Court is currently dealing with so many issues that many have criticized as judicial over-activism.  The Supreme Court is currently seen to be ordering environmental pollution control, garbage removal, protection of monuments, widening of roads, etc.  In all cases where the welfare of the people is not taken into consideration, for example, when a court orders the closure of a factory for environmental pollution, it is unthinkable that many workers will lose their jobs and suffer indescribably.  Renowned lawyer and MP Somnath Chatterjee said, "The job of the judiciary is not to make laws, but to enforce them."  Expressing concern over judicial activism, Justice Sedley remarked, "Judicial Activities Menace to the Rule of Law."

 Discuss various methods of amending the Indian Constitution

 Answer:

      The framers of the Indian Constitution were not in favour of making the Indian Constitution too flexible.  Too flexible would be inconsistent with India's federal structure;  Again, if it is made too rigid, it will not be able to keep pace with the changes of the age.  So they wanted to reconcile the two so that the necessary dynamism of the constitution could be maintained, while at the same time harmonizing with the Indian federal structure.  MP Sharma, in his book The Government of the Indian Republic, remarked that the Indian constitution reflected a combination of the constitutional amendment system prevalent in both the monolithic and federal states.

      Not all parts of the Indian Constitution can be changed in the same way.  The Constitution of India can be amended with the help of three methods. Article 368 of the Constitution mentions two methods and one method is discussed sporadically in different parts of the Constitution.

 The first method: -

      Article 368 (1) of the Constitution states that Parliament may, by exercising its 'constitutional powers', add, delete or change the Constitution.  Article 368 (2) of the Constitution states that a proposal to amend the Constitution may be raised in any House of Parliament in the form of a Bill.  Article 368 (2) further states that the bill shall be sent to the President for approval after approval by a majority of the total members of each chamber of Parliament and two-thirds of the voting members present.  The amendment takes effect once the President signs it.  According to this method, the fundamental rights mentioned in the third part of the constitution, the directive principles described in the fourth part can be changed about 80% of the constitution.

 The second method: -

       There are several issues in the Constitution that need to be amended. After the first procedure is approved in both Houses of Parliament, the amendment proposal is sent to the Legislature of the States for approval.  With the support of at least half of the state legislatures, the proposal is sent to the President for approval.

 1) Presidential election and election system (catch No. 54 and 55).

 2) Governance relations between the Center and the States (Articles 63 and 162),

 3) Formation of High Court for Union Territories (Section 241),

 4) Matters relating to the Supreme Court as described in Chapter IV of Part V of the Constitution, matters relating to the composition, functions and jurisdiction of the High Court described in Chapter V of Chapter VI,

 5) The Seventh Schedule and the distribution of power among the States,

 6) Representation of States in Parliament,

 7) The method of amending the constitution is described in section 368.

 Article 24 of the Constitution Amendment Act of 1971 states that Article 13 of the Constitution shall not apply to amendments to the Constitution organized by Article 368.  The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution Act of 1976 states that no question can be raised in the court about the parts of the Constitution which are amended by Article 368.

 Third method: -

     There is no need to follow any special procedure for the issues that are amended according to the third method of amending the constitution.  All these parts can be amended in the form of general legislation with the support of the general majority in both the Houses of Parliament to create new states or state reorganizations.  These include changing the boundaries or names of the old states, creating or abolishing second chambers in the states, privileges of Parliament, salaries and allowances, rules on 'quorum' in Parliament, official language, an extension of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

 The 24th Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1981, states that any constitutional amendment bill sent to the President must be complied with.  However, if there is a disagreement between the two chambers of Parliament over the Constitution Amendment Bill, it is cancelled;  In this case, there is no joint session.

 Evaluation: -

     Analyzing the method of amending the Constitution of India, the following features are observed ---

 First, the third of the three methods mentioned above are extremely common;  The first and second methods are relatively complex.  The constitution has been kept in abeyance where states have vested interests.  Therefore, the Constitution of India cannot be said to be as flexible as the Constitution of Britain, nor can it be said to be as inflexible as the Constitution of the United States.  The Indian Constitution has made a compromise between flexibility and inflexibility.  Professor Carey praised the coordination process, saying "The Constitution of India strikes a balance."

    However, judging from the reality, the Constitution of India can be called a change.  The US Constitution has been amended only 27 times in its 200-year history;  In that case, the Indian Constitution has been amended eight six times in just 45 years.

 Second, the method of amending the Constitution of India is not consistent with the federal policy, as (1) the State Legislatures have no role in raising the Constitution Amendment Bill.  (2) Parliament has the final say on the name of the state, change of boundaries, formation of the state, reorganization, etc.  (3) States have no role in amending most constitutions except for a few.

 Third, the Constitution is silent on the number of days that bills must be submitted to state legislatures for approval.

 Fourth, there is no end to the debate over whether fundamental rights can be amended.  The main point of contention is Article 13 (2) of the original constitution and the various contradictory judgments given by the Supreme Court in this regard at different times.  Article 13 (2) of the original constitution stated that if a law was enacted in a way that violated fundamental rights, that law would be considered null and void.  The Supreme Court, while passing judgments in the Shankariprasad case (1952) and Sajjan Singh (1965), commented that the fundamental rights deserved to be amended.  But it overturned the Supreme Court's ruling in the 1967 Golkanath case, saying parliament did not have the power to amend fundamental rights.  The Supreme Court's judgment in the Bharati case in 1973 goes back to its earlier state, saying that Parliament can change any part of the Constitution by its constitutional powers, but it cannot change the basic structure of the Constitution.  In the Keshbananda Bharati case (1973) and later in the Minerva case (1980), the Supreme Court recognized that fundamental rights were amendable.

    According to many, the concept of the basic structure of the constitution is confusing. There can be no such thing as the basic structure of the constitution.  And the bullets that seem to be fundamental may no longer be fundamental as conditions change in the future.  In this context, the famous statement of the Constituent Assembly Jawaharlal Nehru can be recalled: "There is no permanence in the constitution .... If you make anything rigid and permanent you stop a nation's growth."

 different elements and stratification of the atmosphere

 Answer:

 Atmospheric material: -

      The atmosphere is a compound mixture.  Meteorologists have divided the atmosphere into three main categories.  Such as 1) mixture of different gaseous substances, 2) water vapour and 3) different organic and inorganic particles.

 1) Mixtures of different gaseous substances -

 A) Nitrogen The maximum amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere is 78.1 per cent.

 B) Oxygen-- The second major component of the atmosphere is oxygen (20.9) per cent.

 C) Carbon dioxide The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is very small (0.033) per cent.

 2) Water vapour -

       Atmospheric humidity, clouds, rain, snow, etc. are caused by the effect of water vapour.  The role of water vapour in controlling the temperature of the atmosphere is also important.  However, water vapour does not remain the same everywhere in the atmosphere.

 3) Various organic and inorganic particles In addition to gaseous elements and water vapour, various organic and inorganic particles can be observed in the atmosphere.

 Atmospheric stratification ---

    The different layers of the atmosphere can be divided into two parts.  Such as--

 A) Stratification of the atmosphere according to chemical composition and

 B) Stratification of the atmosphere according to capacity.

 A) Atmospheric stratification according to chemical composition ---

     The chemical composition of the atmosphere can be divided into two main levels.

  1) Hemisphere -

      The level of the atmosphere up to about 90 km above sea level is called the hemisphere.  The word hemisphere means atmosphere.  This layer is called the hemisphere because of the composition of the various chemical elements in the atmosphere and the fact that a proportional rate is maintained between the elements.  The hemisphere is mainly composed of three types of elements.  Namely - 1) a mixture of different gaseous substances, 2) water vapour, 3) different organic and inorganic particles.

 2) Heterosphere stratification -

      The heterosphere can be further divided into four sub-layers.  1) molecular nitrogen layer, 2) atomic oxygen layer, 3) helium layer and 4) hydrogen layer.

 B) Atmospheric stratification according to temperature -

    The atmosphere can be divided into several layers according to the temperature.  The hemisphere has a troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere and the heterosphere has an ionosphere, exosphere and magnetosphere.

 1) Troposphere -

        It extends from the surface to a maximum of 18 km in the equatorial region and a minimum of 8 km in the polar region.  In addition, the air layer, which extends up to 100 km from the surface, greatly affects the surface weather and climate.  All the changes in the climate of the earth i.e. clouds, storms etc. can be observed at this level.  For this reason, it is called the variable layer or troposphere.  This part is known as the troposphere.  Most of the processes of the Earth's climate are limited to this level.  With an increase in altitude of 1 km per level, the temperature decreases at a rate of 6.4.  The 2 - 3 km wide layer above is called the tropopause.

 2) Stratosphere -

     The stratosphere is a layer that extends up to a height of about 50 km above the troposphere.  Since there are no clouds, storms, etc. in the stratosphere, jets fly through this layer to calm down. At this level, the temperature gradually increases with increasing altitude. At an altitude of about 50 km, the air temperature is highest and 10.  The stagnant layer above the stratosphere is known as the stratosphere.  The main reason for the rise in temperature in the stratosphere is the location of ozone gas in this part.  As a result, not only does the temperature rise, but the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted from the sun can no longer reach the earth's surface due to the presence of the ozone layer in this part of the atmosphere.

 3) Mesosphere -

     The mesosphere is the layer that extends about 80 km above the surface of the stratosphere.  At an altitude of 80 km, the air temperature drops to -93.  As the height of the mesosphere increases, the temperature decreases rapidly and the maximum temperature decreases to about 100 C.  The lowest temperature of the atmosphere can be observed at this level.  Due to this, the meteorites coming from space towards the earth are burnt to ashes.  The stagnant layer above the mesosphere is called menopause.

 4) Ionosphere -

     The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that survives at an altitude of about 700 km above the surface of the mesosphere.  The air here is very light and the ions are ionized for intense sun rays.  This layer acts as a reflector in the case of radio waves, making it possible to communicate with the rest of the world.  As the lower part of the ionosphere rises to an altitude of about 500 km, the temperature rises very rapidly and the maximum temperature in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 500 km is about 1200.  The warmest layer of the atmosphere is called the thermosphere.

     At this level, the magnetic resistance of the electromagnetic molecule produces a beam of light that is called the North Pole and the South Pole.

 5) Exosphere -

     The layer in the atmosphere above the ionosphere is called the exosphere.  The concentration of hydrogen and helium atoms in the layer can be observed.

 6) Magnetosphere--

     Recently meteorologists have speculated about the existence of a magnetosphere above the exosphere, but little is known about it.

 Bismarck's contribution to the unification of Germany

 Answer:

     Bismarck was the head of German unification.  It cannot be said that the Germans were the first to think of unity.  The unity movement began in Germany long before his arrival, and German nationalists paved the way for the unity movement.  But the history of German unification flowed into the liberal and constitutional spheres until 1850, but the failure of the liberal system opened a new chapter in the history of German unification.

       This new stage was led by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Bismarck.  He proceeded on the two real paths of diplomacy and war.

 Bismarck's policies and procedures: -

 In the monarchy, Prussia's supremacy over military power ---

     1) Bismarck's political ideology and policy were based on his belief in a monarchy.

    2) He was determined to unite the whole of Germany under the Prussian monarchy.  That is why he tried his best to destroy the dominance of Austria over Germany.

    3) Realizing that war would be inevitable, he took firm steps to increase his military strength.  He firmly believed that only military force could solve Germany's problems.

 Conflict with the House of Representatives, military organization complete ---

      Following this policy in practice, his conflict with the majority liberals in the House of Representatives became inevitable, with the House of Representatives ignoring the annual government budget.  But as he continued to make the necessary money to build military power, the Prussian regime became an autocracy.

     Bismarck, meanwhile, focused on Prussia's progress at home and abroad.  As the organizational strength of the Prussian army increased.  Defeated in the war with Italy, Austria's military and diplomatic power were weakened.  Bismarck, on the other hand, developed diplomatic relations with Russia and achieved Russia's neutrality in the Prussian unity movement, taking advantage of the monomalignment between Russia and Austria.

 Different Steps to Unification: The Schleswig and the Holstein Problem - The War with Denmark:

      In the south of Denmark, the two centres, Schleswig and Holstein, were legally under Danish rule, but in internal affairs, the two Dutch enjoyed complete autonomy.  Some of the inhabitants of Schleswig were Danes, but most of Holstein was German.

      As nationalism spread, problems arose with the two Dachis, with nationalists in both countries demanding the inclusion of the two countries.  When the problem became more complicated, the Danes-Raj wrote a new constitution in 1848, trying to annex the two Dutch dukes as a whole.

      Prussia and Austria disagreed over the future of these two places.  There is a war going on over who will dominate those two places.  But in the end, in 175, the two were settled by the Treaty of Gastin.

 The war between Austria and Prussia (17): -

      Bismarck wanted to expel Austria from Germany, so he had no intention of making Gastin's contract last.  He described the agreement as a "crackdown on paper".  So Bismarck began to prepare for the next war.

      His first task was to achieve the neutrality of European states in a possible war.  He gained Russia's friendship by remaining neutral in the Polish uprising.  By isolating Austria in this way, Bismarck began to look for opportunities for war.

      In 16 AD, Austria introduced the question of Schleswig-Holstein to the Confederate diet.  It sent troops to Prussia Holstein, accusing it of opposing Gastin's treaty.  In protest, the Austrian-led Diet declared war on Prussia.  This war lasted only seven days.

     After losing several battles, Austria was finally defeated in the Battle of Salwar in 16 AD.  This resulted in the subjugation of Prussia, not just Austria but the whole of Germany.

 Franco - Prussian War (180): -

       As a result of the Battle of Salwar, the Jarna-unity was partially completed.  France is now the main obstacle in the way of complete unity.  So Bismarck understood that a war with France was inevitable.  France also considered this war necessary for several reasons.

      Prussia's unexpected victory in the Battle of Sadoar, the establishment of its dominance over the North German Confederation, and its military build-up shocked France.  Bismarck also realized that a war with France was inevitable to achieve German unity because the annexation of the South German states to the North German Confederation would not allow France to happen at all.

      So Bismarck understood that a situation had to be created when France itself declared war on Prussia and a sense of nationalism and national unity arose in all German states.

     As soon as the war broke out, Bismarck declared France a foreign invader.  When news of Belgium's occupation was published, England also became dissatisfied with France and adopted neutrality.  Bismarck's diplomacy wins.

    A review of the various steps taken by Bismarck shows that Prussian military power played a major role in uniting Germany.

 The aftermath and significance of the First World War

 Answer:

       World War I is a very important milestone in the history of the world.  Although the Great War arose mainly as a result of the conflict between the European states, it spread to all continents and the battlefields in water and land space.  The enormity of the loss of life, money, resources and waste is also unprecedented in the First World War.  Apart from being a direct participant in the war, all the states of the world were affected by this all-out war at all levels of national life.  Its omnipotent effect brought about a huge and profound change in the political, social, economic and cultural life of different nations of the world.  Its results are far-reaching and revolutionary in comparison to any other previous war.  

 Political change as a result of the First World War: -

 Map changes in Europe:

        As a result of World War I, four great empires disappeared.  Russian, German, Austrian-Hungarian and Turkish.  The earthquake of political reorganization changed the map of Europe in 1914.  In the war, that is, in 1919, old Europe was no longer known.  The reorganization of Poland, Bohemia, Romania, Lithuania, etc. The creation of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia is a new trend in the political history of Europe.

 The victory of nationalism:

       The spread of nationalist ideology in Europe and all over the world was a revolutionary contribution to the First World War.  The Paris Conference widely recognized nationalism.  This resulted in the fragmentation of multi-ethnic empires into multi-national states.  For example, four independent nation-states were formed, separated from the old Russian Empire - Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.  The Polish state was re-formed with the territories of Poland occupied by Germany, Austria and Russia.  Yugoslavia was formed by connecting Bohemia and Moravia with Czechoslovakia and the Austro-Hungarian Slavic territory with Serbia.  Thus in many cases nationalism wins in Europe.  Of course, this policy was not followed in all parts of Europe.  And in all these regions, fierce nationalism re-emerges and disrupts world peace.

        Nationalism spread beyond Europe.  Nationalist ideology is rapidly gaining strength, mainly in the countries that were under the influence of the imperialist states of Europe.  As a result, mass movements took place in China, Egypt, etc., and in India, Indonesia, etc., the freedom movement intensified to break the shackles of foreign rule.

 Expansion of Democracy:

       With the spread of nationalism came the spread of democracy.  In 1914, republics were established in five countries, including France and Switzerland, but in 1919, the number of republics in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, etc., stood at 16.  Russia established a communist government.

 The emergence of dictatorship:

        An overflowing current of resistance to democracy continues to prevail.  This is a dictatorship.  The failure of the democratic system to solve the economic, social and political problems of post-war Europe became apparent.  And frustrated people consider dictatorship as a system of governance.  In Germany, Italy, Spain, and Turkey, dictators continued to rule with absolute power.

 Rise of Internationalism:

       A joint effort of the Allies in the First World War.  As a result, their interdependence increases, especially in the economic field.  Thus internationalism spread.  The United Nations was established to establish lasting peace.  Although the United Nations has failed to play an effective role in preventing future wars, the impact of internationalism on the economy has been significant.  Internationalism grew through the communist organization Third International.

 Social change as a result of the First World War: -

 Accelerated women's liberation:

       World War I also revolutionized social life in Europe.  Countless young men were killed on both sides in this battle.  As a result, the number of young people in the country is declining.  But the number of women is increasing proportionately.  This has led to many serious social problems.  As the number of able-bodied men decreased and many of them were engaged in direct combat, women in every country started running factories, schools, colleges, hospitals, etc.  As they come forward in equal steps as men, they become equal to men.  Naturally, in the post-war period, when women demanded equal rights and status as men, most of them were recognized.  Thus, the First World War gave impetus to the women's liberation movement.

 Reducing social inequality:

       It can be said that the First World War acted as a supporting force for the establishment of social equality.  During the war, everyone, rich and poor, fought and suffered equally.  Many have sacrificed their lives to achieve a common goal of winning the war. This traditional social class has broken down the wall of inequality and changed social values.

 Increasing the importance of the working class:

      World War I was a national initiative in every country.  As important as the army was in this, the working class played an important role in continuing production in the mills and factories.  So in the post-war period, the working class became aware of their rights.  They chose the path of movement to realize their demands.  As a result, their influence in the political arena increased.  Various workers' welfare social systems were introduced.

 Economic changes as a result of the First World War: -

 Wartime Socialism:

      There was a waste of resources during the First World War.  So the economic crisis in the post-war world intensified.  Factories are destroyed, production is disrupted, and terrible unemployment occurs.  The financial plight of the people became extreme.  During the war state control over production and distribution was established in the industry instead of private enterprise.  Attempts to gain personal profit are condemned in society.  Even in the post-war period, that tradition was not destroyed, so it helped in the spread of socialist thought.  With this wartime socialism, especially in Germany, a "war-based economy" developed.  Under the full control of the state, with the help of the elements of production, the economy is used for the urgent need to win the war.  In the post-war world this economic contribution, economic planning gained popularity.

 Artificially made raw materials:

       Warring countries often did not prepare for war as expected due to a lack of raw materials.  Therefore, to reduce the dependence on the partner countries for the supply of the required raw materials, efforts are being made to produce many raw materials by artificial means.  For example, cellulose, bayonet, plastic, etc. were discovered in this way, which led to the improvement of industry and trade.

 National Financial Self-Sufficiency:

       Finally, World War I eliminated international trade-based economic interdependence.  In its place came Ataki, the national financial self-sufficiency.  During the war, every state had a bitter experience of lack of food and war materials.  So in the post-war period, everyone tried to be self-sufficient in this matter.  Every state has become protectionist by imposing import duty on rhymes to stop imports.  As a result, on the one hand, the products produced in the industrialized countries are accumulating, the factories are closing down and the number of unemployed is increasing.  On the other hand, the prices of goods produced in industrialized countries are greatly increased.  But as the verdict of the people was not increased in proportion to the increase in the price of goods, their misery did not end.  In short, all the countries have reduced their imports and focused on increasing their exports, creating a stalemate in international trade.

 Cultural changes as a result of the First World War: -

    The cultural life of the world was not liberated from the omnipotent effects of the First World War.  The religious revival took place in response to him.  Many people naturally find peace and comfort in the world of religion and the afterlife.  That is why spiritualism gained popularity during the war.  Similarly, many people have a strong belief that education is needed to save civilization from the resurgence of this catastrophic war.  So the efforts for the education of children and adults are increased.  Also significant is another post-war trend.  Previous ideas about justice, marriage, sex, etc., have changed radically.  Their value is relative to their social needs - this theory is gaining popularity.  Contemporary literature also reflected this theory.

 Reasons for the French Revolution of 1789: -

 Answer:

       Through this great revolution came the spontaneous protest of the exploited and oppressed people against the existing system of state and society based on inequality and injustice.  The socio-economic inequality and exploitation combined with political weakness and constitutional unprincipledness created an explosive situation in 1789.  Historian Alfred Koban likens the situation to a catastrophic flood in a combination of numerous small and large rapids.

      The French Revolution was not an accident, nor was it organized for any reason.  Due to political-socio-economic philosophical influences and various other reasons, the gathering started a groundbreaking revolution.

 Political reasons for the French Revolution:

 Autocratic monarchy: -

  Believing in the doctrine that the king's power was God-given and that he was God's representative, he concentrated all power in his own hands.  The king was at once the ruler, the judge, and the legislator, and the destiny of the people.  Under authoritarian rule, there was no such thing as individual freedom in France.  By trampling on the hopes and aspirations of the people, the king ruled according to his whims and fancies.

 Wealth and luxury of Versailles Palace: -

       Louis XIV, despite being a dictator, tried to benefit the people.  But Louis XV was completely indifferent to the rule and indulged in luxuries.  Louis XVI was charismatic in his personal life and interested in the welfare of his subjects.  But due to his lack of character determination, he could not realize his aspirations.  To satisfy their military aspirations and luxuries from generation to generation, they lost the immense wealth of the country.  Indrapuri and Bilas Niketan Versai Rajprasad were inscribed on the tombs of Shubhashub.

 The dominance of the aristocracy and bureaucracy: -

        Taking advantage of this weakness of the royal power, the corrupt elite bureaucrats sought to spread their dominance.  They have to exploit in the name of governance with the help of attendants for their self-interest.  They used royal arrest warrants without the king's knowledge, and the intents of their enemies became oppressors for their self-interest.  To the people of France, they are called greedy wolves.

       Incidentally, the French emperor Louis XVI was fully aware of the complexity of the situation.  He came to power in 1774 and undertook a reform program.  To alleviate the miserable financial crisis, various measures were taken by the ministers like Turg, Necker, Kalon and The Bryan to restructure the austerity measures.  But all these efforts failed due to the opposition of the influential elite.  In the hope of overcoming the revenue crisis, Louis XVI was forced to convene a meeting of the States-General.  Thus the failure to reform the monarchy opened the door to revolution.

 Social causes of the French Revolution: -

 Inequality and corruption in social life:

       There were elite communities that were mainly divided into three classes.  The aristocratic and priestly communities were included in the first and second classes and the dispossessed middle and lower classes were made up of the third class.  The first two classes enjoyed all the powers and privileges of social and political life.  But the third class, the middle and lower classes, which made up the majority of the population, was deprived of all rights to political, social and economic life.  They were also deprived of all rights in state and social life.  But the first two classes, despite getting all the facilities, were exempted from paying taxes.  There was no limit to the misery of the agrarian community, which included the third class, and they had no dignity in social life.  They worked on the land of the zamindar.  They had no independent entity.  We had to live on the grace of the zamindar.  Even though they were suffering from poverty, they could not get relief from taxes.

 Dissatisfaction with the educated and affluent middle class:

     There was no shortage of highly educated and wealthy people in the middle class.  Even though they were advanced in terms of education, they did not get any status in the life of the state and society. Due to this, protests arose in their minds against the discriminatory and corrupt conventional and social system.

 The economic reasons for the French Revolution: -

 Inequality and injustice in economic life:

       Inequality and injustice in the economic life of France were some of the main reasons for the French Revolution.  The population of France grew dangerously, and in 1789 the population of France reached two and a half crores.  On the other hand, abnormal price rises overwhelm the economy as the production system does not improve.  As a result of rising food prices, three-quarters of the common man began to spend on food.  In the eighteenth century, France's economic situation was discriminatory and inconsistent.  The first two classes of the aristocracy enjoyed all the benefits of social and political life.  They were exempted from paying taxes and received various favours.

 The plight of farmers:

       But the poor oppressed third class, the peasantry, which made up the vast majority of the country's population, was deprived of all rights.  But they were given the maximum responsibility to perform their duties towards the state.  Despite their extreme poverty, they were burdened with the highest taxes. One-tenth of them had to pay to the church as a religion.  In this way, the financial life of the afflicted peasants was in dire straits. In addition, in the two years 1787 - 1789, inflation increased drastically and as a result, three-quarters of the income was spent on bread alone.

 The regime's inability to compensate the country for the huge amount of money due to the ongoing war:

      France has suffered enormous financial losses as a result of its constant warfare for more than a century.   They made no effort to improve the country's industrial trade.  They only tried to meet the expenses of the government by increasing the public tax.  But their policies were based on inequality and corruption.  This flawed and discriminatory policy has led to the collapse of France's economic base.

 Sixteenth Louis Cortes States-General and the Beginning of the Revolution:

      When this catastrophe occurred in the economic life of the country, France lost a lot of money as a result of providing military aid to the Americans in the American freedom struggle.    In France, the debt burden is alarming.  In 1789, the national debt was about two and a half billion livers.  Louis XVI and his ministers, meanwhile, we're unable to stabilize the economy through fiscal reforms.  The empty treasury could have been filled by imposing taxes on the privileged classes only, but the influential elite strongly opposed fair tax distribution.  Opposition from the elite made the advent of the French Revolution inevitable.  They were unwilling to reduce their chances and thwarted the economic reform efforts of the Bourbon monarchy.  With the cooperation of the elite, Louis XVI would have been able to get out of the financial crisis and resist the revolution.  But seeing no other way, Louis XVI was compelled to convene a Test General Session, which was convened by the King.  The King's convening of the States-General Assembly marked the beginning of the fall of the dictatorial monarchy.  The catastrophe in the economic public life of France as a whole accelerated the pace of the French Revolution.

      There is a lot of controversy about how economic factors are responsible for the advent of the French Revolution.  Michelle's idea opened the door to the poverty revolution with the oppression of the old system.  Tamweel, on the other hand, felt that the peasants were opposed to special rights and equality because of their economic prosperity.  Professor Labrus has analyzed economic reasons differently, stating that from 1730 to 1780, there was a touch of economic progress.  But after 1780, a period of decline began.  The crop crisis and food crisis of 1788 intensified the protests and the people resorted to violence.  Thus the French Revolution took place in France in 1789.

 Discuss the key features of the Indian Constitution?

 The main features of the Indian Constitution are discussed below: -

*1)The world's largest constitution:

*2) A combination of written and unwritten constitutions:

*3) Constitution Recommendations:

*4) A mixture of the flexible and rigid constitution:

*5)Coordination of federal and central governance:

*6) Governance of the parliament:

*7) Basic Rights:

*8)Owner duties:

*9) Instructional policy:

*10) Coordination between the jurisdiction of the judiciary and the sovereignty of Parliament:

*11)Secularism:

*12)One citizenship:

*13) Emergency Powers:

*14) Special reservation:

  Unity movement in Italy

 Answer:

          Hundreds of divided Italy, located in the south of Europe, won to achieve national unity.  Matsini was a pioneer in Italy and the independence movement, Garibaldi was it's Aussie and Cavur was its director.  After 1815, the unification movement began in Italy.  But there was no consensus on Italy's approach to unification.  There are three special doctrines in this regard.

  First, ideological leaders such as Mazzini sought to establish an independent Italian republic through a democratic revolution.

 Second, leaders such as Gilbert introduced various Italian doctrines under the leadership of the Pope.

   After 1850, under the leadership of Kapoor, the unification of Italy was implemented based on this doctrine.

 Joseph Matsini: First Life:

      Matsini was born in 1805 in Genoa, Italy.  

        That is why at first he became a member of it.   And was cast into a castle called Sadona.   From this election, he inspired the country's movement.

       He formed a new team called "Young Italy".  

 Mazzini's aims and principles:

          Matsini loved his homeland Italy.  That is why the main purpose of his life was to unite and make an independent Italy.  His motives were progressive;  He did not want to see an autocratic monarchy established in a united independent Italy.  He was in favour of establishing a republic.  

      His principles were reflected in the Young Italy movement.  1) Although he was initially Carbonary civilized.   2) He called on the youth of Italy to become self-reliant and to expel Austria by their strength.  It was against his principles to be dependent.  His motto was "Never Rise in Any Other Name of Italy and All Italy."  3) He explicitly declared that the first duty for the unity and progress of the He believed that this duty could be performed on his strength.

         By 1833 Young Italy had gained widespread popularity.  And there is a very strong movement all over the country.  

       In all of Italy, in deep despair, Matsini gave hope.   He inspired all Italians with a new consciousness.  He dared to jump into the struggle.  Indeed, his movement was not successful, but it paved the way for the movement to form a future Italy.  Some in Italy's various political parties have called his ideology "extremely extremist."  Again, some may have described his ideology as mere madness, but ignoring all criticism, Matsini is immortalized in history today.   

 Garibaldi:

          Garibaldi was born in Nice, northern Italy.    Martini and Garibaldi were homosexuals in terms of ideology and approach.  The distance between the two was short.  Martini and Garibaldi both believed in republican ideals.  Where Cavour wanted to unite Italy under the leadership of the King of Piedmont, Garibaldi sought to establish a republican system in Italy like Mazzini.  Garibaldi's activities can be divided into two stages.

       In 1836, Garibaldi joined the Italian liberation movement.  After the failure of Young Italy's efforts, he was forced to live in exile in South America from 1836 to 1848.   And the second time he was sent to America.

 Step 2:

        Martini was an ideologue, a magician and Garibaldi was a worker, a general in the struggle.   He was a believer in the only weapon.   That is why many have had the opportunity to make such harsh remarks that his heart was like that of a lion but in intellect, he was the equivalent of a bull.  But everyone will admit that there was no gap between his patriotism and his struggle for independence;  His contribution to the Italian independence movement is not insignificant.  

 Introduction to Kavur:

      Caviar's contribution to the unification of Italy and the liberation struggle of the whole of Italy was immense.  

        But his interest in politics never waned.  He was thinking about various problems of the country as if he was getting ready for future life.  He travelled to England and France many times and observed the political and economic systems there with great devotion.  He became fascinated with individual liberty and the rule of law and dreamed of establishing it in Italy as well.  

        Two years later, he joined the cabinet.  Except for a few days in the middle, he made the unification of Italy possible by holding this responsible position until his death.

 Kapur's Objectives and Principles:

           He further understood that to take this leadership, his kingdom must be made suitable in all respects.  He has to become an ideal state.

    Help and support must be sought and for that, the problem of Italy must become an international problem.  

 Functions of Kavur: Phase I:

         He reorganized the military department, built the navy, developed agriculture and industry, encouraged foreign trade, and introduced many developmental reforms.  

 Step 2:

            He was able to put the problem of Italy in front of everyone.  He arranged for his co-operation in the war against Austria by concluding the Treaty of Plumbers with Napoleon III of France.  

      He then provoked Austria in various ways and forced them to go to war and gradually began to win.  If Napoleon III, in his interest, had settled the war with Austria alone in the middle, Italy would have made great strides towards unity.   Annoyed, the king advised Emmanuel to ignore him.  Kapur's advice was erroneous and Kavur resigned dissatisfied when the king accepted it with greater prudence.

      But within a few months, he corrected his mistake and agreed to take up the ministry again (in 1860).   The unity of Italy went a long way.

          Garibaldi was compelled to exercise restraint and leave the king in charge.  

 Caviar's achievements:

            The superiority of Kavur is in this place.   

        He moved forward infallibly towards his purpose and goal but moved forward with reality.    He had a clear idea of ​​Italy's needs, and it was clear to him which way to go.

        He did not sit and wait for the right situation, he was trying to create the right situation.  He made it possible for him to join the war in Crimea and attend the Paris meeting.  Gaining the support of Napoleon III against Austria is no less credit.  Because he first realized that Italy couldn't achieve independence without the help of any foreign power.   He did not publicly support Garibaldi's campaign in southern Italy for diplomatic reasons but secretly offered him all kinds of assistance.    He is compared only to Bismarck of Germany.

         Another idea against Kavur is that he did not build a strong and democratic system.   Italy was backward compared to other European countries.   Like Bismarck, he pursued pragmatic politics for unity.   Napoleon III and Garibaldi II were able to use Cavur for unification, so Cavur can be called the creator of modern Italy.

        He did not believe in deception.  So to make Piedmont Sardinia the leader of the unity movement, he realized the need for various reforms and followed them into action.  As director of state, Kavur also showed considerable generosity and deep knowledge.